Journal of Research in Music Education

A search for music research in inclusive music school settings (1975–2013) resulted in 22 descriptive and experimental studies that can be classified and coded according to settings, participants, research variables, measures of generalization, and effectiveness of the interventions. Half of the studies reported data from both students with disabilities and typically developing students. All participants were at preschool or elementary levels; no participants were at secondary levels. Less than half of the studies were conducted in music classrooms, but few measured music knowledge or skills; most often, social skills were measured. Only a few studies reported the generalization of learned skills (music or other) to new situations. Participants with disabilities were most often described as having intellectual disabilities or autism; high-incidence populations (e.g., learning disabilities) were underrepresented. In a large majority of studies, authors reported effective outcomes for interventions (most were specifically designed music activities), and some reported partially effective results. Based on the results of this review, we conclude there is a pressing need to expand research in inclusive music education settings and answer the many questions about students’ participation and effective teaching strategies for classrooms and rehearsals that include a wide range of student abilities.

The purpose of this study was to replicate and extend previous findings on spontaneous movement and rhythmic engagement with music in infancy. Using the identical stimuli and procedures from the original study, I investigated spontaneous rhythmic movements in response to music, infant-directed speech, and contrasting rhythmic patterns in 30 Brazilian infants (ages 5, 11, and 19 months). Findings were consistent with the original study in that more spontaneous rhythmic movements were found in response to music and metrically regular stimuli than to speech. Brazilian babies, however, showed higher means for spontaneous rhythmic movement to music than those reported in the original study. Consistent with the developmental systems approach, these results suggest that culture plays a larger role in spontaneous rhythmic engagement to music and rhythmic entrainment than previously suggested.

The purpose of this study was to examine elementary music teachers’ perceptions of factors impacting their music programs and teaching positions as well as the actions these teachers take in response to those factors. The following research questions guided the study: (1) What factors are perceived to impact music programs and teaching positions? (2) What is the nature of these factors? (3) How and within what socioecological levels do teachers act on behalf of their programs or positions? (4) To what degree are specific actions, people, and/or groups thought effective in impacting music programs? U.S. music teachers (N = 432) responded to a survey designed to answer these questions. A socioecological framework was used in the design of the survey and analysis of the data. Results suggest that teachers perceive micro-level factors (school) to have a substantial impact on their programs. Teachers’ actions were mostly focused on the micro level although many teachers considered meso-level (school district) engagement to be vital for maintaining or improving music programs in a given school district. Besides music-specific policies, macro-level issues (state and national) were not viewed as impacting programs in substantive ways. The further removed a factor from the micro level, the less impact was felt and the fewer actions were taken.

The purpose of this study was to document the history of music education at the New York Institution for the Blind (NYIB) from the opening of the school in 1832 through the tenure of the facility’s first music director, Anthony Reiff. Research questions pertained to the school’s origin and operation and to its music curriculum, pedagogy, faculty, ensembles, and resources. The NYIB provided a home and education for students ages eight to twenty-five. The music program served as recreation and vocational training and as a means of promoting the school. Reiff joined the faculty in 1835 and established a band and choir that performed throughout the city and surrounding states. In 1847, the board of managers hired George F. Root as head of vocal music and named Reiff director of the instrumental division. Sigismund Laser replaced Root in 1855 and remained at the NYIB until 1863, when both he and Reiff left the school. The faculty at the NYIB developed and promoted effective methods for teaching music to people with blindness and prepared graduates to serve as church musicians, piano tuners, and music educators. Findings from this study might serve to remind music educators of past pedagogical methods and principles applicable in teaching students who are blind today.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the four sources of self-efficacy in music performance and examine responses from the Music Performance Self-Efficacy Scale (MPSES). Participants (N = 290) were middle and high school music students from 10 schools in two regions of the United States. Questions included the following: (1) How much influence does each source have on self-efficacy? (2) Are there differences among band, chorus, and string students? (3) Are there differences between middle and high school students? (4) Does music aptitude predict self-efficacy, and (5) Does evidence support the MPSES as a valid and reliable scale? Results indicated that mastery experience exerted the strongest influence, no differences were found among ensemble types or grade levels, and music aptitude scores predicted modest increases in self-efficacy, β = .16 (.07). Examination of test content, response process, internal structure, and relationships with other variables provided evidence of validity, while internal consistency and test-retest values provided evidence of reliability. Recommendations for further research included examining the development of self-efficacy at different ages, measuring the relationships between the sources of self-efficacy and music achievement, and using the MPSES to assist in the investigations of other psychological constructs, such as self-identity and motivation.

The purpose of this study was to examine collaborative composing in high school string chamber music ensembles. Research questions included the following: (a) How do high school string instrumentalists in chamber music ensembles use verbal and musical forms of communication to collaboratively compose a piece of music? (b) How do selected variables (music performance and composing experience, quality of group collaboration, gender grouping, perceptions of the project) influence the process of composing collaboratively in a high school chamber music ensemble? and (c) What variables influence the quality of the resulting collaborative composition? High school string instrumentalists (N = 37) formed eight chamber music ensembles. Participants completed a presurvey regarding music performance and composing experiences, were videotaped while composing chamber music compositions, and completed a postsurvey regarding their project experiences. All groups spent a larger percentage of time engaged in task-directed musical communication than in verbal communication. Balance of collaboration had a strong relationship with composition quality. Mixed-gender groups had a stronger balance of collaboration than same-gender groups. Postsurvey data indicated that enjoyment of the project was found to have a strong relationship with composition quality.

There is a growing interest in alternative forms of pedagogy for students in K–12 settings. Free improvisation, a relatively new and unfamiliar genre, offers potential as an ensemble for teachers to provide in order to offer more egalitarian and creative music experiences for their students. The purpose of this multiple case study was to determine common elements of instruction among four university free-improvisation instructors in order to inform K–12 music education. Pauline Oliveros, Fred Frith, Ed Sarath, and David Ballou were interviewed and observed in order to find common elements among their teaching. Data collection included transcripts from interviews and field notes, recordings, course materials, and other documents, such as course syllabi, university catalogues, texts, and press material about the pedagogues. The common themes that emerged among the four pedagogues included an array of unique teaching exercises, facility with nontraditional vocabulary, the establishment of a safe and egalitarian teaching space, lack of evaluation, leader as guide, comfort with spontaneity, and pedagogue as performer/improviser. The conclusion offers ideas for implementing these ideas in K–12 and music teacher education.

The purpose of this study was to examine correspondence schools of music in the early twentieth century. Advertisements in widely circulated household and music periodicals and archival copies of courses from Siegel-Myers Correspondence School of Music, United States School of Music, American College of Music, and others were examined. Research questions focused on course offerings, faculty, recruitment, and reputation of the schools. The study also examined the advantages and disadvantages of this first generation of distance education and implications for current distance education practices today. Results revealed that correspondence schools of music had more breadth and, in some cases, depth than previous research had indicated. Instruction at numerous schools was offered on a wide variety of instruments, including voice, as well as in music history, music theory, and music teacher education. One of the prominent teacher education resources was Frances Elliott Clark’s Course in Public School Music offered through Siegel-Myers Correspondence School of Music. Instruction reached a wide demographic, including segments of the population without alternate access to music education. This rich history shows that distance education has been and will remain a viable and valuable option for accessing music education.

Renowned around the world, schools within the municipality of Reggio Emilia, Italy, have inspired North American early childhood educators for over 25 years. Despite the popularity and usage of the Reggio Emilia approach in the United States, music educators may find it unfamiliar. There is a lack of research that has discussed the use of music or application of music education in Reggio-inspired schools. The purpose of this multiple case study was to examine the state of music education in three North American preschools inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. The research was guided by three questions: (1) How is music socially constructed and integrated into a Reggio Emilia–inspired preschool classroom’s daily life curriculum? (2) How does music education in Reggio-inspired classrooms compare to the national preK music standards? and (3) What aspects of Reggio Emilia–inspired preschools may be transferable to early childhood music classroom contexts? The researcher asserted that music was prevalent in these schools and that several models of the music teacher role existed; however, more work needs to be done to realize the full potential of this organic, synergistic relationship.

Considering the potential for stereotypes to shape professional expectations, the four researchers in this study investigated photographic representation of adult men and women in implied positions of authority in 50 years (1962–2011) of issues of Music Educators Journal (MEJ). Data included every photograph (N = 7,288) of adults conducting, teaching or presenting, or granted the authority of having their picture labeled with their name (named persons), and were analyzed by year over the 50-year period. Results showed that females composed 28% of these photographs, with the largest representation of females being found in the teaching/presenting category (56%) and markedly smaller representations of females found in the conducting (21%) and named persons (20%) categories. Fluctuations in certain categories across the five decades suggest that while representation of males and females in MEJ has changed in 50 years, inequity persists. Implications include a call for greater attention and effort toward equitable representation in music education media for publishers, authors, and other contributors in addition to increased sensitivity to the representations of male and female stereotypes and professional expectations encountered by music educators and students.