Environmental evolution and anthropogenic forcing in the Garigliano coastal plain (Italy) during the Holocene

Abstract

The Garigliano alluvial-coastal plain, at the Latium-Campania border (Italy), witnessed a long-lasting history of human-environment interactions, as demonstrated by the rich archaeological knowledge. With the aim of reconstructing the evolution of the landscape and its interaction with human activity during the last millennia, new pollen results from the coastal sector of the Garigliano Plain were compared with the available pollen data from other nearby sites. The use of pollen data from both the coastal and marine environment allowed integrating the local vegetation dynamics within a wider regional context spanning the last 8000 years. The new pollen data presented in this study derive from the analysis of a core, drilled in the coastal sector, which intercepted the lagoon-marshy environments that occurred in the plain as a response to the Holocene transgression and subsequent coastal progradation. Three radiocarbon ages indicate that the chronology of the analyzed core interval ranges from c. 7200 to c. 2000 cal yr BP. The whole data indicate that a dense forest cover characterized the landscape all along the Prehistoric period, when a few signs of human activity are recorded in the spectra, such as cereal crops, pasture activity and fires. The main environmental changes, forced by natural processes (coastal progradation) but probably enhanced by reclamation works, started from the Graeco-Roman period and led to the reduction of swampy areas that favoured the colonisation of the outer plain.

Keywords

coastal progradation environmental change geoarchaeology human impact pollen

Introduction

Coastal areas, although unstable environments that change rapidly changing under the influence of geomorphological processes and climate changes, have always been exploited by humans for various purposes, such as fishing, shellfish gathering and hunting of small game, saltworks, harbor activity, marketplaces, etc. (e.g. Aiello et al., 2018; Amato et al., 2013; Anthony et al., 2014; Marriner and Morhange, 2007; Russo Ermolli et al., 2018).

The most dynamic coastal environments humans had to cope with since Prehistory are represented by the flat alluvial-coastal plains. Here, rapid displacements of the coastlines, caused by the interaction between post-glacial sea-level rise and detrital inputs from inland (e.g. Amorosi et al., 1999; Amato et al., 2013; Anthony et al., 2014; Brancaccio et al., 1995; Cinque et al., 1995; Kayan, 1999), were coupled with the occurrence of extensive wet zones occupied by a dense vegetation cover, often limiting the land use. In particular, floodplain forests dominated by species such as Alnus, Corylus and Salix, alternating with hygrophilous plants (mainly Cyperaceae), were widespread in all western Mediterranean coastal plains (Magri et al., 2019 and references therein), around coastal lakes or lagoons and in the marshlands. The forest associations, mainly highlighted through pollen analysis of Holocene sediments, were characterized by a very high biodiversity (Magri et al., 2019) and the presence of species, such as Vitis and Juglans, which would be domesticated starting from the Bronze Age (Russo Ermolli et al., 2018 and references therein).

Apart from the edible plants, evidence of exploitation of wild hygrophilous species come from the Paleolithic settlement (c. 30,000 BP) of Bilancino (Tuscany, Italy) in which the inhabitants processed marsh plants such as Typha to make a primitive flour (Aranguren and Perazzi, 2013; Aranguren and Revedin, 2008).

For the advantage of preserving sedimentary archives (marsh and lagoon deposits) suitable for palaeoecological analysis, coastal environments have widely been investigated all around the Mediterranean basin (Di Rita and Magri, 2012 and references therein) with the aim of reconstructing their evolution and the human impact during the Holocene. In particular, along the Italian coasts, significant multidisciplinary studies including pollen analysis were carried out in Tuscany (Arno - Aguzzi et al., 2007; Ombrone Plain - Biserni and van Geel, 2005), Latium (Stagno di Maccarese – Di Rita et al., 2010; Stagno di Ostia – Bellotti et al., 2011), Campania (Marina di Minturno – Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b; Bellotti et al., 2016; Naples – Russo Ermolli et al., 2014; Sele Plain – Amato et al., 2012, 2013; Aucelli et al., 2012) and recently in Calabria (S. Eufemia Plain – Ruello et al., 2017; Russo Ermolli et al., 2018).

The results of these studies, despite the local differences, indicate a general and progressive anthropisation of the coastal landscapes and an acceleration in the human-induced changes since the Graeco-Roman period. Such acceleration often coincided with important changes in environmental conditions, forced by natural processes (coastal progradation) but often enhanced by reclamation works that led to the reduction of swamp areas, favouring the colonisation of the outer plains. Archaeological excavations of Heraion, at the Sele River mouth (Campania), have shown that canals and consolidated plans (fourth cent. BC) were built to drain the marshes, using waste material from the Greek sanctuary structures (Greco, 2003).

The Garigliano alluvial-coastal plain, at the Campania-Latium border, seems to be in line with this general trend. In this region, different modalities of settlements are archaeologically documented since the Neolithic (Guidi, 2007; Guidi and Saracino, 2010) but the heavy anthropic impact on the landscape mainly took place from the Roman age, when important towns and numerous farmlands developed (Arthur, 1991; Guidobaldi and Pesando, 1989). Due to the long-lasting human-environment interaction in this territory, the reconstruction of landscape changes can be a fruitful issue only if addressed through a multidisciplinary study. With this premise, the environmental evolution of the Garigliano Plain during the last millennia is here reconstructed through an integrated palynological-archaeological approach in a well-defined morphostratigraphical context. Palynology is widely recognized to be one of the most appropriate methods for reconstructing past landscapes, highlighting vegetation changes and their possible causes. Among the latter, one must necessarily consider the forces related to the anthropic impact when dealing with the Middle-Late Holocene, and the consequent need of the archaeological support.

In this work, new pollen data from the coastal sector of the Garigliano Plain are compared with the available pollen and archaeological data from the same region in order to give a wider chronological and spatial synthesis of landscape evolution and human forcing during the last millennia. In particular, pollen data of four continental cores from the coastal area (Aiello et al., 2007; Bellotti et al., 2016; Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b) and one marine core from the Gulf of Gaeta (Di Rita et al., 2018) were used for comparison. Land-sea correlation allowed optimising the relevance of both kinds of data. Indeed, the marine pollen data represent a regional signal of vegetation and climate variations supported by a robust chronology. Conversely, pollen data from coastal environments are characterized by the dominance of local vegetation and are often associated with a less reliable chronology, due to the almost unsolvable problems of hard water or freshwater reservoir effects. In fact, the water of transitional environments, such as lagoons, can be enriched in dissolved ancient carbonates, deriving from the input fresh water, which can increase the ¹⁴C sample content (Philippsen, 2013; Ruello et al., 2017; Sabatier et al., 2010). The bias is attenuated in coastal lakes or marshes where the commonest dated material is mainly composed of organic matter deriving from terrestrial plants (peats or wood), which incorporate carbon in equilibrium with the atmosphere.

Study site

Geological and geomorphological setting

The Garigliano coastal plain is bordered by the limestone massifs of the eastern Aurunci Mountains to the NW, by the Suio Mountains to the N and by the Roccamonfina district to the NE (Figure 1). It is separated from the southern Volturno Plain by the carbonate ridge of Monte Massico.

Figure 1.

Location of core CL1 and the main sites cited in the text.

Both the Garigliano and Volturno plains developed in a graben originated by the extensional tectonics linked to the opening of the Tyrrhenian Sea during the Pliocene (Aiello et al., 2018; Bartole, 1984) and filled with Pliocene-Pleistocene marine and transitional sediments (Bellotti et al., 2016 and references therein). Since the Lower Pleistocene, a series of faults were activated conditioning the birth and evolution of the Roccamonfina volcanic district, active between 600 and 50 ka BP (Radicati di Brozolo et al., 1988). The Late Pleistocene–Holocene evolution of the graben was influenced by the interaction between glacio-eustatic cycles (125–6 ka BP), fluvial sediment supply, volcanic inputs from the Phlegrean Fields and Vesuvius and smooth tectonic phases (Bellotti et al., 2016; Brancaccio et al., 1991; Di Vito et al., 1999; Santangelo et al., 2010). At 39 ka BP, the Garigliano and Volturno plains were uniformly covered by the Campanian Ignimbrite, a thick (30–50 m) pyroclastic flow succession derived from one of the largest eruptions occurred in the Mediterranean region (De Vivo et al., 2001).

The meandering Garigliano River, flowing on an almost flat morphology, is the main drainage of the hydrographic network consisting in a series of small rivers, almost all from the heights of Roccamonfina. Several orders of fluvial terraces are recognizable in the plain in an altimetric range of 25 m (Abate et al., 1998) whereas Late Pleistocene and Holocene beach ridges are found, parallel to the coast (Abate et al., 1998; Brancaccio et al., 1990). The Holocene evolution of the plain is summarized by Bellotti et al. (2016) in four evolutionary phases testifying to the gradual progradation of the coastline and concurrent extinction of wetlands.

Vegetation and climate setting

The Garigliano and Volturno alluvial-coastal plains are characterized by a typical Mediterranean climate, with precipitations varying between 1200 mm/yr on the reliefs and 850 mm/yr along the coastal sectors and mean annual temperatures ranging between 9 and 16°C.

The coastal promontories and the south-facing slopes, up to an altitude of ca. 600 m, are characterized by sclerophyllous shrubs and evergreen oak woodlands (Filesi et al., 2010). At higher altitudes, the slopes are covered by deciduous forest formations, dominated by Quercus pubescens, Q. cerris or Carpinus orientalis and Ostrya carpinifolia whereas the montane zone is characterized by Fagus sylvatica forests (Di Pietro, 2011). Chestnut cultivations represent the main element of the Roccamonfina volcanic district (Croce and Nazzaro, 2012). Patchy stands of pine forests with Pinus pinea, P. halepensis and P. pinaster have been planted along the coast since 1955, while agricultural activities, with both permanent orchards and olive groves, are widespread in the coastal plain and foothills.

Archaeological setting

The analysis of the archaeological record in the examined territory has taken into account both the most significant archaeological sites, with a special attention to the development of Roman cities, and the report of ancient literary sources.

The map of Figure 1 aims to be a guide for the reader showing the most cited archaeological sites in the current work but it has no chronological values since it does not include all known sites of importance within the studied area.

Along the edges of ancient coastal ponds, lithics from the Neolithic period were found at some sites (Bagni Solfurei, Starza, San Pietro, Incaldana), though the complete assemblage indicates that there was no farming in the area. However, the evidence does suggest that fishing, shellfish gathering and hunting of small game, especially avifauna, was practiced locally (Aiello et al., 2018; Guidi, 2007; Guidi and Saracino, 2010).

With regard to the Eneolithic period, the recovery of blades, Gaudo facies pottery and a spindle whorl found at Bagni Solfurei confirm the presence of a stable settlement near the shore of a small coastal lake. In addition, arrow cusps from Arivito and a flint dagger with opaque retouching from Impiso Bridge were found (Aiello et al., 2018; Guidi, 2007).

Between the advanced stage of the Early Bronze Age and the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, a process of selection and concentration of settlements occurred on the slopes of Sant’Eufemia and Arivito. Perhaps with the introduction of animal-drawn ploughs, the soils located inland became farmable. The greater importance of sheep farming, seasonal short-range transhumance and the new defensive requirements of the proto-historic communities, seem to have led people to occupy Mount Petrino (Aiello et al., 2018) and Mount d’Argento in the Late Bronze Age. Several other sites were founded on the fossil dunes bordering the Holocene marshes landward (Alessandri, 2007; Bellotti et al., 2016; Ferrari et al., 2012, 2013a, 2013b). The exploitation of wetlands probably was linked to fishing or harvesting of aquatic plants (Angle and Belardelli, 2007).

To the Iron Age (ninth cent. BC) is dated the ‘Villaggio dei Ciclamini’ (Crimaco et al., 2007) on Mount Petrino. It was connected to the huts found in the area of Sinuessa and near the Mondragone cemetery and connotes a scattered occupation of the territory. The discoveries on the Massico slopes testify to the presence of permanent settlements with a social articulation and a developed economy, especially in metal processing (Sirano, 2008).

Historical sources indicate that during the Iron Age the area was occupied by Aurunci people settled between the Liri (Garigliano), the Volturno and the Trebulani mountains. Their largest cities were Ausona, Vescia, Minturnae, Suessae and Sinope, most of them located atop the carbonate terraces in the hinterland (Ferrari et al., 2014). Also Teano was occupied by the Aurunci and then by the Sidicini that founded a stable urban form (Teanum Sidicinum). Even the Etruscans controlled the coastal areas of the Gulf of Gaeta and, at the mouth of the Volturno River, in the territory occupied by the Opici settlement, they built the town of Volturnum that became an important trade point on the road to Capua (Di Rita et al., 2018).

Both literary sources and archaeological data attest that the territory was occupied by a mosaic of cultures, such as Samnites, Aurunci and Sidicini (Sirano, 2008 and references therein). They also gave rise to the inland settlement phenomenon of the ‘Valley Liri Culture’ (sensu Johannowski, 2000 and references therein) that led to increased presence between the seventh and sixth cent. BC. A famous monument of this period is the Marica shrine, at the Garigliano River mouth, that was in use since at least the seventh cent. BC (Andreani, 2003) and was monumentalized in the sixth cent. BC, when also the Panetelle shrine was built (Talamo, 1987). The Marica shrine was an emporic shrine that mediated the inland and Mediterranean trade (Bellini, 2002, 2007; Mingazzini, 1938).

Although archaeological data suggest the continuity of many of these settlements up until the Roman conquest, a debate is still ongoing (De Caro, 2012). The Roman conquest began in the last quarter of the fourth cent. BC and changed the general organisation of the territory, extending its dominion to all northern Campania with a complicated system of alliances, foedera and colonies (Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b). The Roman reorganisation occurred in around three centuries, with the construction of a road network (Arthur, 1991) centred on the Via Appia (312 BC); the foundation of colonies such as Sessa Aurunca (313 BC), Minturnae and Sinuessa (296 BC), Cales (334 BC), as well as the more recent ones of Volturnum and Liternum (194 BC); the centuriation of the territory and the development of a settlement pattern based on farms and villas. In particular, Minturnae, Liternum and Volturnum were not only maritime colonies but also had the function of controlling the fluvial traffic; in fact, they were located, respectively, along the Liris/Garigliano, Clanis and Volturno rivers (Arthur, 1991). The colony of Minturnae became a very important trading centre (Bellotti et al., 2016; Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b; Guidobaldi and Pesando, 1989) with two fluvial ports, one of which close to the Marica sanctuary, as testified by literary (Plutarch) and archaeological sources (Bellini, 2007; Bellini and Trigona, 2014; Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b; Gregori and Nonnis, 2013; Ruegg, 1995).

Literary sources, such as Plutarch (Life of Marius 37–39) and others,¹ describe the Minturnae landscape in the first cent. BC as constituted by wetlands with shallow water basins and muddy soils rich in marsh vegetation, where Salix and Quercus dominated the arboreal association (Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b). The aims of Rome were to sanitize the coastal lands and extend their agricultural capacity. Organized drainage and irrigation of parts of the Garigliano, Savone and Volturno floodplains during the late Republic and early Empire seem proven from archaeological evidence that dates a number of banks and ditches to the classical period. Of interest is also the presence of colmatage deposits formed by the redeposition of sediments in marshy areas through transportation by a series of canals, which unfortunately have not yet been dated. In general, the tales of Plutharc’s marsh-dwellers, together with the discovery of a coin hoard at Costera, dating to the third cent. BC, suggest that land improvement schemes along the coast coincided with colonisation (Arthur, 1991).

With the advent of the Roman Empire, the development of the existing towns in this area continued, and other drainage works along the coast are dated to the Empire period, such as the construction of Fossa Neronis (a canal extending along the coastal stretch from south of Sinuessa to the Phlegrean Fields) and the Via Domitiana in AD 95 (Arthur, 1991). The inland area of Liternum was exploited for olive, grape and cereal cultivation (Camodeca, 2010).

From the third cent. AD, a period of crisis began and the farms and villas system declined. In AD 455, the town of Liternum was destroyed by Vandals (Di Rita et al., 2018) and around the second half of the sixth cent. AD, Minturnae was very likely abandoned, the population moving to the nearby hills where the modern Minturno is situated (Arthur, 1991; Bellotti et al., 2016; Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b).

Starting from the sixth cent. AD, the region was progressively occupied by Lombards. As in many cases of the Early Medieval period, many Roman structures were reused for different purposes or else completely abandoned (De Caro, 2012). The Roman acropolis of Teanum was occupied by a Lombard Castellum, which under Arechi II was transformed into a fortress (Gasperetti and Balasco, 1996). In Sessa Aurunca, Landaone I built in AD 879 the first fort on the site of the arx (Cilento, 1966).

For the Early Medieval Age, archaeological sources testify to the continuity of life. Important sites are the village of Arivito, at the foot of Mount Petrino, the Rocca Montis Draconis, located on top of Mount Petrino and the famous thermal baths, near the ancient village of Aquae Sinuessanae, in use up to the 10th cent. AD (Crimaco and Sogliani, 2009).

Minturnae underwent a gradual contraction from the fourth cent. AD onwards. During the ninth cent. AD, Saracens still exploited the mouth of the Garigliano River as a landing place but after their expulsion the coast remained almost unpopulated becoming swampy (Bellotti et al., 2016; Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b). Subsequently, during the 11th cent. AD, the region was occupied by the Normans and the expansion of Benedictine monasticism in Campania began (Di Rita et al., 2018). A large marsh south of the Volturno River mouth was controlled by the Benedictine Monastery of San Lorenzo d’Aversa that acquired significant political and economic control in southern Italy. This monastery, through a dense network of rural outbuildings, granges and farms, controlled vast areas of the Campanian Plain as far as the sea, favouring their reclamation and agricultural exploitation (Faenza et al., 2009).

Materials and methods

CL1 core lithology and chronology

In 2016, a 16 m-core (CL1) was drilled at Cellole/Mondragone (Figure 1) at an altitude of 1 m above sea level (asl), ca. 800 m away from the modern coastline. For the aims of the present study, only the upper part of the core was analyzed. This interval (−4.30/+1.00 m asl), made up of sandy-silts, clayey-silts and blackish peaty-clays, represents the lagoon and marshy environments that succeeded in the coastal area in response to the Holocene ingressive-progradational phases. The Holocene sediments unconformably cover the Campanian Ignimbrite, a volcanic formation dated to 39 ka BP, which represents the substratum of the entire Campanian Plain (Santangelo et al., 2010, 2017).

Three ¹⁴C dating were performed at the CIRCE Laboratory – Center for Isotopic Research on the Cultural and Environmental heritage (Università degli Studi della Campania – Luigi Vanvitelli). In particular, peat samples were dated at −4.30 and −1.50 m asl, whereas wood remains were dated at −2.60 m asl. Radiocarbon ages were calibrated with CALIB 7.1 (Reimer et al., 2013; Stuiver et al., 2017).

Pollen analysis of CL1 core

Pollen analysis was undertaken on 29 samples collected from the CL1 core from −4.30 to −1.20 m asl. Samples were treated with chemical and physical procedures following Russo Ermolli et al. (2014). About 300 pollen grains were counted in each sample. Arboreal (AP) and Non Arboreal Pollen (NAP) percentages were calculated on a pollen sum excluding the NPP (non-pollen palynomorphs) and the environment taxa (group EX). Among Poaceae, pollen grains with dimensions greater than 45 μm and an annulus of 10 μm at least were considered as cereals (Joly et al., 2007). Due to their anthropogenic value (Cugny et al., 2010 and references therein), coprophilous fungal spores were identified and included in a single group. Microcharcoal particles ⩾20 mm were counted in pollen slides, the smaller ones representing the background signal of regional fires (Sadori et al., 2004). A further element in support of a fire hypothesis is the increase in trilete spores, indicative of fern regeneration on thin soils in deforested areas (Mensing et al., 2015). A detailed pollen diagram was computed with all taxa percentages plotted against depth. Some sporadic herb taxa were grouped in a single curve (other herbs). Constrained Cluster Analysis (CCA) was applied to facilitate diagram zonation with homogeneous and well-separated subsets (clusters) between available data (MATLAB codes written by V. Di Donato in Russo Ermolli et al., 2018). A synthetic diagram with the most significant taxa was plotted against a chronological model obtained by linear interpolation of dated levels and correlated to archaeological phases.

Pollen data comparison

With the aim of obtaining a regional picture of landscape evolution during the Holocene, the pollen results achieved for CL1 core have been compared with the available pollen data from the same area. In particular, synthetic diagrams from the Gulf of Gaeta (Di Rita et al., 2018), Vindicio (Aiello et al., 2007) and Marina di Minturno (C1, C2, C3 – Bellotti et al., 2016; Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b) have been redrawn by selecting the most significant taxa for the interpretation of the vegetation cover change and the anthropic impact on the territory (Russo Ermolli et al., 2018). The selected taxa are: the AP and NAP, the main representative of the floodplain forest (Alnus or Salix), the main representative of the marsh-water plants (Cyperaceae), Quercus ilex, Olea, Juglans, Castanea, Vitis, Fabaceae and cereals.

Furthermore, in order to equalize all compared pollen data, it was necessary to include the Cyperaceae of CL1 in the total NAP, as adopted for the other pollen sequences. In fact, the published pollen data selected for the comparison include the marsh/water plants in the total of NAP, so they obviously have influence on the AP fluctuations. Finally, in order to chronologically compare the pollen diagrams, all available radiocarbon ages were re-calibrated using CALIB 7.1 (Reimer et al., 2013; Stuiver et al., 2017).

Results from CL1 core

Age model

The results of radiocarbon analyses are indicated in Table 1. The average 2σ uncertainty is 286 years at −1.50 m, 209 years at −2.60 m and 129 years at −4.30 m, indicating a quite low-resolution chronology. The continental origin of the dated material (peat and wood remains) makes the reservoir and hard water effects less invasive (Ruello et al., 2017 and references therein), although a certain aging of the results cannot be excluded. The calibrated ages (median probability) were used for plotting an age model through linear interpolation (Figure 2). This simple procedure is based on the assumption that the sedimentation rate is constant between two dated levels. The results show that the CL1 pollen sequence covers a time-period between c. 7.2 and 2 ka BP and that the sedimentation rates vary between 0.65 and 0.45 mm/yr. Pollen sample resolution ranges from 145 years (lower part of the analyzed core interval) to 215 years (upper part) which can be considered an adequate resolution for a 5000-year sequence.

Table 1.

¹⁴C data from three samples of core CL1.

Altitude (m asl)	Dated material	Radiocarbon age yr BP	Cal yr BP 2σ	Median probability cal yr BP	Cal yr BC 2σ	Median probability cal yr BC
−1.50	Peat	2503 ± 40	2456–2742	2587	753–507	638
−2.60	Wood	4419 ± 45	4865–5074	5010	3125–2916	3061
−4.30	Peat	6802 ± 45	7575–7704	7641	5755–5626	5692

Samples were analyzed at the CIRCE Laboratory – Center for Isotopic Research on the Cultural and Environmental heritage (Università degli Studi della Campania – Luigi Vanvitelli). Each conventional radiocarbon age was converted to calendar age by calibration with CALIB 7.1 (Reimer et al., 2013; Stuiver et al., 2017).

Figure 2.

Log of the Holocene interval of core CL1 matched with the linear interpolation depth/age model.

Detailed pollen diagram

Samples were generally rich in pollen grains and only five samples proved barren; 66 taxa were identified and concentration values range from 6400 to 58,000 grains/gram of sediment. Three main compositional pollen zones were identified in the detailed diagram on the basis of CCA. Detailed description of pollen analysis results as well as the detailed pollen diagram can be found in Supplemental Material.

Discussion

Evolution of the Mondragone coastal strip from c. 7200 to c. 2000 cal yr BP

Pollen data from CL1 core and their comparison with the archaeological and geomorphological setting of the surrounding area, allowed reconstructing the evolution of the Mondragone coastal sector between c. 7200 and c. 2000 cal yr BP. The curves of the main taxa, displayed in the synthetic diagram of Figure 3, show the evolution of both local vegetation and environmental conditions along the investigated period. The main environmental changes correspond to pollen zone boundaries, indicating that the presence or abundance of specific pollen taxa is a powerful tool in distinguishing the sub-environments of alluvial-coastal plains.

Figure 3.

Synthetic pollen diagram of CL1 core plotted against age and corresponding archaeological phases. Marsh/water plants include Cyperaceae, Typha, Myriophyllum, Potamogeton and Polygonum.

During the entire Neolithic, a dense forest cover (AP around 90%) occupied the coastal plain where an open lagoon had established soon after the acme of the Holocene transgression, as testified by the presence of dinoflagellates (Pollen Zone 1; Figure 3). The only signs of anthropic impact are represented by large amounts of microcharcoals associated with a few coprophilous fungi, suggesting human exploitation of the territory. The stable high values of the forest cover indicate that fires affected woodlands far from the coastal lagoon, which probably was only exploited through fishing, shell fishing and hunting of small game, especially avifauna, as suggested by Aiello et al. (2018). Indeed, also the archaeological finds in the coastal area of the Garigliano Plain attest to a probable Neolithic presence without stable settlements (Aiello et al., 2018).

At c. 5600 BP (Early Eneolithic), the disappearance of dinoflagellates marks the first environmental change (Figure 3). The lagoon was isolated by the sea thanks to coastal progradation and evolved into a fresh water coastal lake (Pollen Zone 2). Soon after, an Alnus-dominated woodland developed on the wet soils surrounding the lake and characterized the landscape until the end of the Bronze Age. During this period, the scarcity of anthropic indicators contrasts with the presence of stable settlements such as the archaeologic site at Bagni Sulfurei (Middle Eneolithic), a few kilometers south of CL1 core (Figure 1). Probably the location of this settlement, shielded by Mount Petrino, has prevented anthropogenic pollen to reach the CL1 site. Moreover, the environmental context of the coastal plain, with a dense forest cover, should have masked the evidence of off-site vegetation (Russo Ermolli et al., 2018). The only anthropic evidence is represented by a peak of coprophilous fungal spores between the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age that can be interpreted as indicative of grazing.

Another change in environmental conditions occurred at c. 3200 BP, towards the end of the Bronze Age, due to the progression of coastline progradation that induced a gradual infilling of the coastal lake and its transition to marshy conditions. This shift is marked by a drastic decline of the alder forest and a rapid increase in marsh/water plants (Figure 3; Pollen Zone 3). At the same time, a progressive decrease in AP percentages begins, associated with large amounts of microcharcoals and an increase of herbs and trilete spores. These data indicate the concurrent anthropic opening of the landscape. The presence of cereals, between the Late Bronze and Iron Ages, testifies to agricultural practice not far away from the coastal plain during the first important occupation of the territory. Alternatively, a rapid rise of Ericaceae coupled with a decrease in Q. ilex could suggest the effect of an arid phase.

The last sample of CL1 shows that the final closure of the marsh occurred in the Roman Period, with the decrease of marsh plants and herbs and the development of the deciduous oak forest. It is interesting to recall that literary sources, such as Plutarch (Life of Marius 37–39), describe the Minturnae (about 10 km north of CL1) landscape in the first cent. BC as being characterized by wetlands, with shallow water basins and muddy soils rich in marsh vegetation and trees such as Salix and Quercus (Ferrari et al., 2013a). Archaeological finds suggest that land reclamation along the coast started during the Roman colonisation, followed by the construction of the Via Domitiana in AD 95 as well as an important coast drainage work (Fossa Neronis) dated to the first Empire period (Arthur, 1991). These data suggest that the natural closure of the coastal marsh may have been favoured by the drainage works put in place since that time.

Regional comparisons

The local data from the Mondragone coastal strip (CL1) were compared with all available pollen data from the same area in order to obtain a wider and more reliable picture of the environmental changes that occurred in the Garigliano Plain in the last millennia (Figure 4). Based on chronological correlation, this comparison can only give wide time-interval scenarios, due to the often-limited reliability of radiocarbon dating in coastal environments. The more precise chronology of the marine core from the Gulf of Gaeta represents a reference for the other successions.

Figure 4.

Regional comparison among pollen data. Gulf of Gaeta core after Di Rita et al. (2018); Vindicio core after Aiello et al. (2007); Minturno cores after Ferrari et al. (2013a, 2013b) and Bellotti et al. (2016).

Since the coastal plain was covered by two main plant associations: the floodplain forest dominated by Alnus and the marsh-water plants dominated by Cyperaceae, the curves of these two taxa were drawn within the AP/NAP diagram, in order to better visualize their role in the AP variation. This procedure can prompt the nature of the AP decrease. In particular, when the AP (and often Alnus) decline is due to local environmental causes, such as the reduction of water bodies’ extension, it is marked by the simultaneous increase in Cyperaceae. When the AP decrease is not coupled with a Cyperaceae increase, it could acquire a climatic or anthropogenic signature, independent from the local environment.

Despite the scarce presence of Neolithic sites in the Garigliano Plain, cereal pollen was found in all Minturno core (C1, C2, C3) levels covering that period. Between the Neolithic and the Eneolithic, coprophilous fungal spores and fire events were detected in CL1, leading us to think that the inland area of the plain was permanently occupied during this period, even if not yet supported by archaeological evidence. It is rather probable that the available archaeological data for the prehistoric period are incomplete due to the lack of systematic surveys in the internal area of the Garigliano Plain; in fact, only the coastal strip between Mount Petrino and Minturno was deeply investigated (Aiello et al., 2018; Ferrari et al., 2012 and references therein). All pollen data suggest that, between Neolithic and Eneolithic, the basis of subsistence for the local population included sedentary activities such as cultivation and grazing. However, these practices did not affect the forest cover (AP) of the outer plain that shows very high values, as can be seen in the Mondragone (Neolithic and Eneolithic) and in the Gulf of Gaeta (Eneolithic) cores.² Although the high AP% of the Mondragone and Minturno cores (local signal) is certainly influenced by the development of the floodplain forest on the wet soils of the coastal plain, the similarly high AP% recorded in the Gulf of Gaeta marine core (regional signal) indicate the occurrence of diffuse humid climatic conditions favouring, despite the human presence, the forest domination of the landscape. During this humid period, a sudden lowering of the forest cover (below 70%) is recorded in the Vindicio core after c. 8400 BP (Figure 4). The lack of a concomitant increase in Cyperaceae suggests that the decrease in AP is not due to a change in environmental conditions but to anthropic or climatic forcing. Thanks to chronology, a human trigger can be excluded and this negative peak can be tentatively interpreted as the evidence of a brief arid shift. Another short phase of AP decline is visible in the Minturno C2 core after c. 7600 BP and coupled with the occurrence of cereals, thus suggesting a possible concurrent anthropogenic influence in the opening of the landscape.

Concerning the Eneolithic period, although archaeological discoveries suggest the presence of stable settlements, pollen data of all cores do not show anthropogenic indicators, apart from the coprophilous fungal spores of CL1 (Figure 3), indicative of grazing. Anyway, the absence of cereals could be linked to their usual poor representation, even close to crops (Mercuri et al., 2006, 2010a, 2010b) and/or to the dense forest cover of the coastal wetlands that can act as a barrier for off-site pollen.

Around the beginning of the Bronze Age, a drop in AP in the Gulf of Gaeta core was interpreted as the regional evidence of the well-known 4.2 ka climatic event (Di Rita et al., 2018; Zanchetta et al., 2017) that seems to have not affected the coastal area, as indicated by the lack of any evidence in all pollen data from Minturno and Mondragone (Figure 4). During the Bronze Age, the presence of stable settlements is testified by cereal crops (Gulf of Gaeta, Minturno and Mondragone) and confirmed by archaeological data (Aiello et al., 2018; Ferrari et al., 2012, 2013a, 2013b; Guidi, 2007; Guidi and Saracino, 2010). In fact, a process of selection and concentration of settlements is seen on the slopes of the coastal reliefs (Mount Petrino and Mount d’Argento; Aiello et al., 2018; Ferrari et al., 2013a, 2013b) probably due to the introduction of animal-drawn ploughs that made the soils farmable.

Cereal crops continue to be present in the Iron and Greek ages (CL1, Minturno-C1+C3, Gulf of Gaeta), accompanied by peaks of microcharcoals in CL1, indicating the increased exploitation of the territory. During the Greek period, a lowering of AP values in the Gulf of Gaeta is interpreted by Di Rita et al. (2018) as the evidence of the 2.8 ka climatic event. Also this arid phase, as the one at 4.2 ka BP, seems to have had no effect in the coastal area even if the maximum expansion of marshy conditions at Mondragone (CL1) occurs at that time. We cannot exclude the alternative explanation that this environmental change was favoured by increasing aridity. The peak of Ericaceae (Figure 3) recorded at the same time could support this hypothesis. The construction of the Marica sanctuary, near the Garigliano River mouth in the seventh cent. BC, was probably favoured by this new environmental/climatic conditions, which made it possible to exploit previously wet coastal areas. The sharp decrease in AP recorded at Minturno (C1+C3) at c. 3000 BP, could be the evidence of the same climatic shift, the slight chronological discrepancy being probably due to the above-mentioned enrichment in ancient carbonates.

From the Roman period, a sudden increase in anthropogenic indicators is observed throughout. Alongside the cultivation of cereals (Gulf of Gaeta and Minturno-C1+C3), the cultivation of Juglans (CL1 and Gulf of Gaeta) and Castanea (Gulf of Gaeta and Minturno-C1+C3) begins, and seemingly for the first time the cultivation of legumes is also recorded (Vicia faba in Minturno-C1+C3). A massive human presence in the Garigliano Plain is archaeologically demonstrated in this period, although the forest cover did not suffered a drastic decrease.

The Roman conquest (fourth cent. BC) changed the general organisation of the territory, with the construction of a road network and the foundation of several colonies. The demographic increase, and consequent requirement of food and raw materials, made it necessary to expand agricultural capacity through reclamation of the coastal wetlands.

The more recent time periods are only preserved in the Gulf of Gaeta core where a sudden lowering of the forest cover is recorded in Medieval times (Di Rita et al., 2018). From this time forward, the AP values between 40% and 70% present the image of a semi-open landscape exploited for agricultural purposes, as seen not only with the crops cultivated in Roman Times, but also with Vitis and, from the modern age, Olea. Within this phase of massive anthropic impact, two negative peaks of AP at 800–1000 AD and 1400–1850 AD are interpreted by Di Rita et al. (2018) as the evidence of climatic events, the second of which corresponding to the Little Ice Age (LIA).

Conclusions

New interpretation of local and regional pollen data, together with extensive knowledge on the human settlement dynamics of the territory, proved to be a fruitful approach in reconstructing the history of a complex area, such as the Garigliano Plain. The integration between archaeological and environmental data allowed some gaps in the archaeological research to be identified, especially for the Neolithic period. Indeed, despite the low amount of archaeological sites dating to this period, pollen data suggest the presence of permanent settlements dedicated to agriculture, probably located inland. On the contrary, the archaeological evidence related to the Eneolithic suggests the occurrence of stable settlements but their impact on the costal territory seems to have been negligible, as testified by the absence of anthropogenic indicators. Evidence of crops were identified throughout between the Bronze and the Iron Age, when signs of fires and grazing were recorded at Mondragone. The rapid climatic events at 4.2 and 2.8 ka were only visible in the Gulf of Gaeta core as clear declines of the forest cover at a regional scale. It seems clear that they had a negligible impact on the coastal areas.

Towards the end of the Iron Age, people started to permanently settle favoured by the diffuse drying out of the marshy areas along the coastal territory. The latter witnessed a substantial occupation starting from the Roman times, as indicated by both archaeological and pollen data, showing, together with cereals, the expansion of tree crops such as Juglans and Castanea. This new exploitation of the territory did not appreciably affect the forest cover at a regional scale but influenced the decline of the floodplain forest as also evidenced in other Mediterranean coastal plains (Magri et al., 2019). Diffuse deforestation took place from the Medieval Age, due to an intensive use of wood resources after the demise of the Roman Empire (Harris, 2013; Russo Ermolli et al., 2013, 2018). From this period, cultivation of Juglans and Castanea increases, together with Vitis and lastly Olea.

Finally, the results of this study have demonstrated that pollen data from flat coastal areas have a limited potential in defining wide landscape changes and human activities being strongly influenced by the overwhelming local vegetation that tends to mask the off-site pollen signal. Conversely, they proved to be very informative in characterising the sub-environments of the alluvial-coastal plain through the relative abundance of specific taxa. A further limitation is represented by the uncertain results of radiocarbon dating in transitional environments that can prevent a precise synchronisation of pollen and archaeological data. The concomitant use of more regional and well-dated pollen data from the marine environment represents a good opportunity of data synchronisation and their comparison with the archaeological knowledge.

Supplemental Material

sj-pdf-1-hol-10.1177_09596836211003242 – Supplemental material for Environmental evolution and anthropogenic forcing in the Garigliano coastal plain (Italy) during the Holocene

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-hol-10.1177_09596836211003242 for Environmental evolution and anthropogenic forcing in the Garigliano coastal plain (Italy) during the Holocene by Halinka Di Lorenzo, Pietro Aucelli, Giuseppe Corrado, Mario De Iorio, Marcello Schiattarella and Elda Russo Ermolli in The Holocene

Supplemental Material

sj-tif-2-hol-10.1177_09596836211003242 – Supplemental material for Environmental evolution and anthropogenic forcing in the Garigliano coastal plain (Italy) during the Holocene

Supplemental material, sj-tif-2-hol-10.1177_09596836211003242 for Environmental evolution and anthropogenic forcing in the Garigliano coastal plain (Italy) during the Holocene by Halinka Di Lorenzo, Pietro Aucelli, Giuseppe Corrado, Mario De Iorio, Marcello Schiattarella and Elda Russo Ermolli in The Holocene

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Authors are grateful to Valentino Di Donato (Federico II University, Naples) for the diagram zonation through CoDA approach. Two anonymous reviewers are deeply thanked for their fruitful comments on the original manuscript.

Author contributions

Conceptualisation: [Elda Russo Ermolli, Halinka Di Lorenzo]; Methodology: [Halinka Di Lorenzo, Giuseppe Corrado, Pietro Aucelli], Formal analysis and investigation: [Halinka Di Lorenzo]; Writing – original draft preparation: [Halinka Di Lorenzo, Elda Russo Ermolli]; Writing – review and editing: [Halinka Di Lorenzo, Elda Russo Ermolli]; Funding: [Pietro Aucelli, Marcello Schiattarella, Elda Russo Ermolli]; Supervision: [Elda Russo Ermolli].

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article: This work derives from the PhD research of Halinka Di Lorenzo, financed through a 3-year grant at the Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources of the Federico II University, Naples. Core drilling was financed by department research funds of Pietro Aucelli and Marcello Schiattarella. Radiocarbon dating was financed by department research funds of Elda Russo Ermolli, Pietro Aucelli and Marcello Schiattarella.

ORCID iDs

Halinka Di Lorenzo

Elda Russo Ermolli

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Notes

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