Assessment

Perfectionism cognitions capture automatic perfectionistic thoughts and have explained variance in psychological adjustment and maladjustment beyond trait perfectionism. The aim of the present research was to investigate whether a multidimensional assessment of perfectionism cognitions has advantages over a unidimensional assessment. To this aim, we examined in a sample of 324 university students how the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (MPCI) explained variance in positive affect, negative affect, and depressive symptoms when factor or subscale scores were used as predictors compared to total scores. Results showed that a multidimensional assessment (PCI factor scores, MPCI subscale scores) explained more variance than a unidimensional assessment (PCI and MPCI total scores) because, when the different dimensions were entered simultaneously as predictors, perfectionistic strivings cognitions and perfectionistic concerns cognitions acted as mutual suppressors thereby increasing each others’ predictive validity. With this, the present findings provide evidence that—regardless of whether the PCI or the MPCI is used—a multidimensional assessment of perfectionism cognitions has advantages over a unidimensional assessment in explaining variance in psychological adjustment and maladjustment.

In the current article, we comment on a recent article by Stoeber, Kobori, and Brown that provided evidence suggesting that a multidimensional approach to perfectionistic cognitions is superior to a unidimensional approach in predicting maladjustment. They also showed with their data from a university student sample that our Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory has multiple factors in contrast to our unidimensional approach. Our commentary focuses primarily on the issue of whether the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory should be considered unidimensional versus multidimensional and outlines concerns about how perfectionism cognition factors should be used and interpreted. Although there are serious interpretive problems inherent in existing multidimensional measures of perfectionism cognitions, it is apparent that a cognitive approach is an important and viable supplement to the extensive focus on the trait multidimensional perfectionism that is currently in vogue. We conclude by discussing the potential clinical uses of cognitive assessments of perfectionism.

We reply to Flett and Hewitt’s commentary on our findings focusing on the multidimensionality of the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) and the question of whether the Multidimensional Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (MPCI) represents an alternative to the PCI. In addition, we reiterate the importance of considering suppression effects when examining different dimensions of perfectionism and, in concluding, invite researchers to join forces to further advance the assessment of multidimensional perfectionism cognitions.

The ability to reason with language is a highly valued cognitive capacity that correlates with IQ measures and is sensitive to damage in language areas. The Penn Verbal Reasoning Test (PVRT) is a 29-item computerized test for measuring abstract analogical reasoning abilities using language. The full test can take over half an hour to administer, which limits its applicability in large-scale studies. We previously described a procedure for abbreviating a clinical rating scale and a modified procedure for reducing tests with a large number of items. Here we describe the application of the modified method to reducing the number of items in the PVRT to a parsimonious subset of items that accurately predicts the total score. As in our previous reduction studies, a split sample is used for model fitting and validation, with cross-validation to verify results. We find that an 8-item scale predicts the total 29-item score well, achieving a correlation of .9145 for the reduced form for the model fitting sample and .8952 for the validation sample. The results indicate that a drastically abbreviated version, which cuts administration time by more than 70%, can be safely administered as a predictor of PVRT performance.

The need for efficient clinical assessment instruments has been growing during the past years. In the current application, the item information (item response theory) is used to evaluate and build fixed short versions. The method was applied to a questionnaire measuring psychological distress and data were collected from two mixed outpatient and general population samples. After fitting the partial credit model, two short versions were built: one to increase efficiency in screening applications; the other for the monitoring of high distress patients. A cross-validation bootstrap procedure is proposed to check whether the short versions are more efficient than alternative item selections. Using the partial credit model, the results from short and full versions can be compared on score level, which improves the flexibility of the assessment. The discussion focuses on the model selection and on how many items are realistically needed in routine assessments of psychological distress.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Rating the severity of psychopathology and symptom load is essential in daily clinical practice and in research. The parent and teacher ADHD-Rating Scale (ADHD-RS) includes inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity subscales and is one of the most frequently used scales in treatment evaluation of children with ADHD. An extended version, mADHD-RS, also includes an oppositional defiant disorder subscale. The partial credit Rasch model, which is based on item response theory, was used to test the psychometric properties of this scale in a sample of 566 Danish school children between 6 and 16 years of age. The results indicated that parents and teachers had different frames of reference when rating symptoms in the mADHD-RS. There was support for the unidimensionality of the three subscales when parent and teacher ratings were analyzed independently. Nonetheless, evidence for differential item functioning was found across gender and age for specific items within each of the subscales. The findings expand existing psychometric information about the mADHD-RS and support its use as a valid and reliable measure of symptom severity when used in age- and gender-stratified materials.

Previous methods examining the Multiple Fatigue Inventory-20 (MFI-20) fatigue questionnaire have been limited to classical test theory, for example, factor analytic approaches. We employed modern test theory to further strengthen the construct validity of the MFI-20 fatigue in a sample of healthy late-midlife subjects. Five subdimensions of perceived fatigue were examined in n = 7,233 subjects: general fatigue, physical fatigue, reduced activity, reduced motivation, and mental fatigue. Fatigue burden was compared across age groups (aged 48-52 vs. 57-63) and gender. Mokken item response theory was used to investigate dimensionality, monotonicity, and invariant item ordering (IIO). In both age groups, as well as by gender, the Motivation domain presented with weak scalability, suggesting that caution be exercised when interpreting sum scores. For all groupings, the strongest scaling properties were observed in the General Fatigue domain. However, the General Fatigue domain did not meet the property of IIO. Two domains (for all groupings) did meet the minimum criteria for the property of IIO: Physical Fatigue and Activity. Introducing model parameters for items served to enhance the interpretive power of the MFI-20, allowing for the identification of the most optimal scales. Poorly performing items were more easily identified, and person ability was assessed more accurately.

A body of research has demonstrated that individuals with Asian ethnicity endorse higher levels of fear of negative evaluation compared with individuals with European ethnicity. To date, no study has examined whether this Asian-European difference may be confounded by the differential interpretation of the measures of fear of negative evaluation by the two groups. The current study thus aimed to examine the measurement equivalence of the 12-item Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation (BFNE) scale and its 8-item variant composed of straightforwardly worded items (BFNE-S) in a sample of individuals who identified with a Chinese ethnicity (n = 204) and a sample of individuals who identified with an Anglo ethnicity (n = 528). Measurement equivalence across the samples was obtained for a two-factor BFNE model and a one-factor BFNE-S model. However, the BFNE-S model demonstrated superior fit to the data. Using the BFNE-S, we found that the Chinese ethnicity sample scored significantly higher on the latent dimension of fear of negative evaluation compared with the Anglo ethnicity sample (d = 0.24). These findings disambiguate previous research on Asian-European differences in fear of negative evaluation and highlight the need for the continued examination of the validity of measures across different ethnicities and cultures.

The Grooved Pegboard Test (GPT) was conceived as a test of manual dexterity, upper-limb motor speed, and hand–eye coordination. The aim of our study was to test the componential structure of the GPT on an archetypal model of motor impairment, Parkinson’s disease (PD). A total of 45 PD patients (33 males, 12 females; age M = 67, range = 49-81; PD duration M = 10, range = 6-20 years; H/Y stage 2, range = 2-3) and 20 age- and education-matched controls (14 males, 6 females; age M = 66, range = 48-80) were included. All participants were investigated using the GPT, Short Falls Efficacy Scale–International, Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), and Non-Motor Symptom Scale. Patients were followed for 6 months, using fall diaries and monthly phone calls to define PD fallers (falls ≥ 1; n = 27) and PD nonfallers (falls = 0; n = 18). Using structural equation modeling, the GPT predicted performance on the MoCA (p < .001), but not on the FAB (p = .29). In conclusion, analysis of the structure of the GPT provided evidence about important cognitive features, in addition to the motor component of this test in PD.

All measures of depression yield a global summary scale indicating the severity of depressive symptoms, implicitly conceptualized as a homogeneous construct. However, depression is a heterogeneous construct, with different presentations, subtypes, correlates, and responses to interventions. In response, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has suggested changes in the way depression is assessed, moving the focus to specific factors, such as cognitive, somatic, or affective symptoms. Still, there is little factor overlap between measures, and shared factors are weighted differently. To help fulfill NIMH’s strategic plan, this study used canonical correlation analysis (CCA) to explore shared latent variables and redundancy across the measures. It also analyzed the psychometric properties of factor-based subscales in the Beck Depression Inventory–2nd edition (BDI-II), Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D), Inventory for Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (IDAS), and Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS). Using a diverse sample of 218 students who reported at least mild depressive symptoms, this study found that the IDAS was best aligned with NIMH’s strategic plan; it has complete DSM-IV/DSM-5 symptom coverage and content-valid, psychometrically sound subscales. The BDI-II, CES-D, and IDS did not have consistent subscales, nor had incomplete or incongruent coverage of DSM criteria. Furthermore, CCA revealed low redundancy across measures (23% to 41% shared variance). These results suggest that different measures of depression do not measure the same construct. As a partial solution, empirical conversion tables were provided for researchers and clinicians to empirically compare total scores from different measures.

The Memory for Intentions Screening Test (MIST) is a clinical measure of prospective memory. There is emerging support for the sensitivity and ecological relevance of the MIST in clinical populations. In the present study, the construct validity of the MIST was evaluated in 40 younger (18-30 years), 24 young-old (60-69 years), and 37 old-old (70+ years) healthy adults. Consistent with expectations derived from the prospective memory and aging literature, older adults demonstrated lower scores on the MIST’s primary scale scores (particularly on the time-based scale), but slightly better performance on the seminaturalistic 24-hour trial. Among the healthy older adults, the MIST showed evidence of both convergent (e.g., verbal fluency) and divergent (e.g., visuoperception) correlations with standard clinical tests, although the magnitude of those correlations were comparable across the time- and event-based scales. Together, these results support the discriminant and convergent validity of the MIST as a measure of prospective memory in healthy older adults.

Personal growth initiative (PGI), an individual’s active and intentional desire to engage in the growth process, has been an important construct in studies of physical and mental health around the world. However, there is a dearth of research examining this construct in African American samples. In addition, PGI has recently undergone a revision of both its theory and measure; the resulting Personal Growth Initiative Scale–II (PGIS-II) has been validated for use only with European American and international college student samples. The current study examined the psychometric properties of the PGIS-II in a sample of African American college students. Confirmatory factor analyses yielded results consistent with previous studies, and the PGIS-II showed evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for three of its four factors. In addition, the PGIS-II was significantly related to aspects of Black racial identity, suggesting that it is a viable construct in this population.

When questionnaire data with an ordered polytomous response format are analyzed in the framework of item response theory using the partial credit model or the generalized partial credit model, reversed thresholds may occur. This led to the discussion of whether reversed thresholds violate model assumptions and indicate disordering of the response categories. Adams, Wu, and Wilson showed that reversed thresholds are merely a consequence of low frequencies in the categories concerned and that they do not affect the order of the rating scale. This article applies an empirical approach to elucidate the topic of reversed thresholds using data from the Revised NEO Personality Inventory as well as a simulation study. It is shown that categories differentiate between participants with different trait levels despite reversed thresholds and that category disordering can be analyzed independently of the ordering of the thresholds. Furthermore, we show that reversed thresholds often only occur in subgroups of participants. Thus, researchers should think more carefully about collapsing categories due to reversed thresholds.